Sociology

Summary: Interaction and shaping of society, social relationships, and social institutions.

Sociological Perspective

Sees the general in the particular (patterns in individual behavior).
Emphasizes social context—we are shaped by where we live, who we interact with, and the time we live in.

Founders

Auguste Comte – Father of sociology, believed in applying science to study society (positivism).
Karl Marx – Conflict theory. Society is driven by inequality and class struggle between the rich (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat).
Émile Durkheim – Functionalism. Society is like a body; parts work together to maintain stability. Studied social facts and suicide.
Max Weber – Emphasized understanding meaning (verstehen), bureaucracy, rationalization, and how culture (e.g., religion) shapes economics.

Material culture: Physical objects (tech, clothing).
Nonmaterial culture: Beliefs, values, norms, language.
Norms: Rules for behavior.
- Folkways: Casual norms.
- Mores: Serious moral rules.
- Taboos: Deeply forbidden acts.
Cultural relativism: Judging culture by its own standards.
Ethnocentrism: Believing your culture is superior.

Process of learning culture and becoming human.
Key agents: family, school, peers, media.
Primary socialization: Early childhood, core identity.
Secondary socialization: Later roles (student, worker).
Total institutions (e.g., prisons, boot camps): Strip identity, resocialize individuals.

System of ranking people in a hierarchy.
Based on class, race, gender, income, education.
Closed systems: Born into caste, little mobility.
Open systems: Class-based, allows social mobility.
Key Terms:
- Social mobility: Moving up/down the social ladder.
- Meritocracy: Status based on effort (ideal, rarely pure).
- Life chances: Opportunities shaped by background.

Deviance: Breaking social norms (not always criminal).
Labeling theory: People become deviant when labeled so.
Strain theory (Merton): Deviance = gap between cultural goals and means to achieve them.
Social control: Formal (laws) and informal (shame) ways society enforces norms.